Salomé Dehaut

Research

Scotland has become a major area for the production of rewilding narratives, whether by practitioners, the media or artists (Cary and Wartmann, 2024; Sandom and Macdonald, 2015). In turn, Scotland is also presented as a key area for rewilding in many of those narratives. This is reflected in fiction: several contemporary novels portraying rewilding initiatives are located wholly or partly in Scotland. This calls for a study of representations of Scotland in literary fiction portraying rewilding (Cloyd, 2016), insofar as fiction informs us on the representations at work in its production context, and also contributes to building an imaginary of a rewilded Scotland. This research thus aim to take these novels seriously and analise how they relate to “real-world” rewilding narratives.

The four novels considered —Bear Witness by Mandy Haggith, the Wolf Border by Sarah Hall, Once there were wolves by Charlotte McConaghy and the Rewilders by Lindsay Littleson— were published between 2013 and 2022 and were all written by women, two of whom are Scottish, one English and one  Australian (see Table). The four novels portray rewilding initiatives in Scotland, with a focus on large terrestrial carnivores: brown bears (Ursus arctos), grey wolves (Canis lupus lupus) and northern lynx (Lynx lynx lynx).

Table summarizing the novels’ characteristics: all four novels portray rewilding with large carnivores (wolves, bears and lynx) and three of them have a woman scientist as main character.

The convergence of these novels on large carnivore reintroduction in Scotland highlights a recurring trope: in fiction, rewilding often manifests as the reintroduction of carnivores carried out by scientists and wealthy landowners in Scotland. This trope is underpinned by several narratives.

Firstly, Scotland is depicted as a land of experimentation and possibility, aligning with a romantic tradition that portrays Scotland—particularly the Highlands—as an archaic, unspoiled place, preserved from modernity (Lumsden, 2007), and even as a wilderness (Habron, 1998). Consequently, it is seen as the ideal setting for stories about rewilding experiments.

Photograph taken by the author near Loch Muick in June 2024. The image features the loch and in the background the hill is covered in open moorland and a small square-shaped plantation forest. Overlaid on the photograph is a quote from the novel The Rewilders:

“’without a top predator, the whole eco-system stops working properly. There are too many deer and they’re causing terrible damage. Forests are being overgrazed and stripped of vegetation. We need our big predators back.’” (The Rewilders, p.81)

Scotland is also depicted as ecologically depleted in these novels. There is a recurring emphasis on portraying Scottish ecosystems as dysfunctional and unbalanced, with landscapes described as “overgrazed” and “bare.” This narrative draws upon ecological theories, particularly the trophic cascades theory, which originated from the reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone National Park in the 1990s (Ripple and Beschta, 2012). According to this theory, the reintroduction of apex predators leads to cascading ecological effects, influencing herbivores, vegetation, and even river morphology. This theory turned narrative posits that large carnivores are essential for maintaining ecological balance, a balance that is purportedly lacking in Scotland. In alignment with this view, the initiatives featured in the novels aim to replicate the Yellowstone success story by reintroducing large carnivores to Scotland, with the expectation that these predators will help reduce deer populations and manage grazing pressure.

Photograph taken by the author near Loch Muick in June 2024. The image depicts red deer grazing on open moorland, with a plantation forest visible in the background. A quote from the novel The Rewilders is overlaid on the photograph:

“’The owner of the estate, Morag Campbell, is a massive fan of rewilding. She has reforested a massive area, but now has a problem with deer numbers. So, she has reintroduced a pack of grey wolves and the seven Eurasian lynx in an attempt to control the number of roe deer.’” (The Rewilders, p.41-42)]

This scientific narrative is also intertwined with a folk tale narrative, which suggests that Scotland is under a curse resulting from the extermination of its predators. In the novels, this is portrayed as a critical mistake that needs to be rectified.

Photograph taken by the author at the Highland Wildlife Park in June 2024. The image features an information board displaying a picture of a northern lynx (Lynx lynx lynx) and a message that reads, “At RZSS Highland Wildlife Park, you can see native species that once roamed Scotland,” along with its translation in Scottish Gaelic. A quote from the novel The Rewilders is overlaid on the photograph:

“Scotland is the natural home of both lynx and wolves. In medieval times, lynx were hunted to extinction for their pelts and because farmers were concerned for their livestock. The last wolf was killed here in the seventeenth century. These animals have got as much right to live here as you and me and Luka Rydeski. This is their home.” (The Rewilders, p.80)

This error is also described at times as an original sin that triggered a curse, which can only be lifted by the return of these predators.

Photograph taken by the author at the Dundreggan Rewilding Centre in May 2024. The image shows a sapling growing on top of a wooden post, which is attached to an old stone wall. A quote from the novel Once There Were Wolves is overlaid on the photograph:

“Today, wolves once again walk upon this ground, which has not seen their kind in hundreds of years. Does something in their bodies remember this land, as it remembers them? It knows them well; it has been waiting for them to wake it from its long slumber.” (Once There Were Wolves, p. 5)

The fourth narrative that constitutes this trope involves associating Scottish rewilding with femininity. In three of the four novels, women ecologists are the central protagonists, and in these novels, these women become pregnant while overseeing carnivore reintroductions in Scotland. Femininity is also reflected in the carnivores themselves: in each novel, the individual carnivores that are highlighted as characters are female. These female carnivores often exhibit behaviors traditionally associated with femininity, such as empathy, care, and a sense of family. This portrayal contrasts with the traditionally virile representation of wolves in literature, such as in Jack London’s works.

Photograph taken by the author at the Highland Wildlife Park in June 2024. The image shows a northern lynx (Lynx lynx lynx) seen in profile, perched on a rock within its enclosure. A quote from the novel The Rewilders is overlaid on the photograph:

“In the dim light of the Scottish rainforest, a fully-grown lynx was approaching, padding through the undergrowth at an unhurried, relaxed pace. A female lynx by the look of it, her coat a speckled grey-brown, her fur thicker than Cora’s, with long ear tufts, and wise eyes orange as sunset. As Callum watched, fear prickling his insides, she sniffed the air, and lay down on the ground, her head resting on her huge paws. “(The Rewilders, p.137)

This trope is employed within the Scottish context but exhibits specific features in the geographies depicted in the various novels. All four novels set their rewilding initiatives in the Scottish Highlands, portraying the Highlands as the epitome of wilderness within Scotland. However, the novels do not refer to the same specific areas of the Highlands. For example, Once There Were Wolves focuses on the Cairngorms, which are presented as emblematic of the Highlands in the novel, while Bear Witness sets the reintroduction of bears in the Highland Council area.

Photograph taken by the author at Rannoch Moor in April 2024. The image features blanket bog with Stob Dearg in the background. A quote from the novel The Wolf Border is overlaid on the photograph:

“There is a particular site that many ecologists believe suitable for a wolf population, she explains, an ‘abandoned area’ where farming has failed, European subsidies have been stopped, and re-wilding is possible. From Rannoch, north of Loch Lomond, west of Ben Nevis, to the sea.” (The Wolf Border, p.420)

Photograph taken by the author in Glen Affric, near Dog Falls car park, in May 2024. The image shows a view of the glen to the east, featuring the loch, mixed forests with a Scots Pine prominently in the center, and hills in the background. A quote from the novel Bear Witness is overlaid on the photograph:

“Hansel has snuffled off into his new home and now only the crate suggests he was anything other than a fantasy. […] I hope he’ll be all right, and will steer clear of the humans at Cannich down the road or the noisy visitors who throng the Dog Falls car park and walk the loop tracks through this last fragment of Caledonian pine forest.” (Bear Witness, p.226)

The novels also connect to existing rewilding initiatives. They reference projects such as Alladale, which inspired the fictional Glenmathan in Bear Witness. Once There Were Wolves also mentions the Rewilding Centre established by the charity Trees for Life near Loch Ness. By incorporating these real-world projects, the novels are grounded in the ongoing rewilding discussions and activities in Scotland. This not only adds a layer of realism but also situates their narratives within the contemporary field of rewilding and its network of stakeholders.

The political issues associated with rewilding are depicted in various ways in the novels. Rewilding sometimes involves democratic decision-making (as seen in Bear Witness), but more frequently, it is portrayed through illegal releases (Bear Witness, The Wolf Border) or elitist practices linked to Green Clearances (Bear Witness, The Wolf Border, The Rewilders) (De Vroey, 2023).

Rewilding is presented as a political practice, also in the sense that it is linked to Scottish politics in two of the novels. Bear Witness and The Wolf Border set their narratives in an independent Scotland. This association of rewilding with political independence creates a parallel between political and ecological redefinition or even rebirth: in these novels, rewilding is intertwined with a vision of political renewal for Scotland.

In contrast, Scottish politics are notably absent from the children’s novel The Rewilders and, more surprisingly, from Once There Were Wolves. The latter novel does not delve into the political efforts required for the reintroduction of wolves. Instead, it begins with the wolves already present in the Cairngorms, and the political issues addressed in the book are limited to local community opposition. Once There Were Wolves presents Scottish geographies and politics in a simplistic manner, particularly evident in the idealized resolution at the end of the novel.

Photograph taken by the author at Glenfeshie, property of Wildland Ltd, in June 2024. The image shows two people walking on a path through heather moorland in Glenfeshie, with the river to their right. Surrounding them are numerous young trees and shrubs. In the background, the hills are covered in forest, except for the higher elevations. A quote from the novel Once There Were Wolves is overlaid on the photograph:

“It is spring now, and the hills have changed color. The deer are on the move. Things are growing again. The wolves have come home. And by some miracle, or perhaps it’s simply the natural way, the people of this land are becoming accustomed to them. With no more incidents since the death of Number Ten, a kind of quiet has fallen over the Highlands, and I suspect, when I see locals using binoculars to patiently watch for sightings, that the wolves are working their way into the hearts of the Scottish people.” (Once there were wolves, p.255)

The reintroduction of large carnivores in Scotland has become a prominent trope in rewilding fiction.  This trope is based on scientific narratives as well as drawing from the conventions of folk tale, and it employs representations of Scotland rooted in a romantic vision of the Highlands. These narratives occasionally contributes to overlooking the political issues inherent in rewilding. Analyzing rewilding fiction critically is essential, especially given that Scotland is now considering the reintroduction of carnivores (Sandom and Macdonald, 2015). My research indicates that actual rewilding initiatives influence these fictional narratives. It would now be valuable to explore whether—and if so, how—these fictional narratives, in turn, impact real-world discussions on rewilding.

References:

Cary, Emma, and Flurina Wartmann. 2024. ‘Rewilding in the British Policy Landscape: A Qualitative Analysis of Policy Documents Related to Rewilding’. Scottish Geographical Journal, mars. https://doi.org/10.1080/14702541.2024.2322653.

Cloyd, Aaron A. 2016. ‘Reimagining Rewilding: A Response to Jørgensen, Prior, and Ward’. Geoforum 76 (novembre): 59‑62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2016.08.013.

De Vroey, Linde. 2023. ‘Back to the Future: Retrospectivity, Recovery, and Nostalgia in Rewilding’. Environmental Ethics, September. https://doi.org/10.5840/enviroethics202383167.

Habron, Dominic. 1998. ‘Visual Perception of Wild Land in Scotland’. Landscape and Urban Planning 42 (1): 45–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-2046(98)00069-3.

Haggith, Mandy. 2013. Bear Witness. First Edition. Glasgow, Scotland: Saraband, Inc.

Hall, Sarah. 2015. The Wolf Border. New York: Harper.

Littleson, Lindsay. 2022. The Rewilders. Pokey Hat.

Lumsden, Alison. 2007. ‘“Beyond the Dusky Barrier”: Perceptions of the Highlands in the Waverley Novels’. In Mìorun Mòr Nan Gall, ‘The Great Ill-Will of the Lowlander’? Lowland Perceptions of the Highlands, Medieval and Modern, 158–86. https://abdn.elsevierpure.com/en/publications/beyond-the-dusky-barrier-perceptions-of-the-highlands-in-the-wave.

McConaghy, Charlotte. 2021. Once There Were Wolves. New York: Flatiron Books.

Ripple, William J., and Robert L. Beschta. 2012. ‘Trophic Cascades in Yellowstone: The First 15years after Wolf Reintroduction’. Biological Conservation 145 (1): 205–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2011.11.005.