Harley Nicole Botham is a PhD Researcher in Norse Studies at the University of the Highlands and Islands. Harley completed an undergraduate degree in Humanities, specialising in Spanish and History, followed by a PGCE in Secondary Spanish, earning Qualified Teacher Status. She later earned an MLitt in Viking Studies from the Institute for Northern Studies at UHI, where she was named 2024 Direct Enrolled Student of the Year. Now in her first year of a PhD in Northern Studies, her research explores Norse diplomatic relations with the inhabitants of al-Andalus.

Norse activity in the Iberian Peninsula remains a significantly under-explored area in academic research, primarily due to the scarcity of archaeological evidence and the fact that the Iberian Peninsula is typically excluded from definitions of the Viking diaspora, as it did not experience the same degree of Norse settlement as other regions. However, contemporary written sources in Latin and Arabic provide ample documentation of several incursions by the normanni (L), or majūs (A) along the shores and through the rivers of the Iberian Peninsula. Likewise, Old Norse accounts also document excursions through the Iberian Peninsula made by renowned Norse figures on pilgrimage to Jerusalem. This showcase presents the expansive and recurrent expeditions in the southern diaspora, highlighting key geographical areas and moments of Norse-Iberian interaction. 

The incursions of the Norse are traditionally described as distinctive ‘waves’, characterised by dates. This is problematic, as Latin and Arabic chronicles at times disagree on the chronology. Ann Christys suggests that Latin chronicles are generally more accurate, since they are usually earlier and more laconic than those in Arabic (Christys 2015: 3). Accordingly, for the purposes of this showcase, the chronology adopted here follows Christys’ framework in reference to the first two incursions illustrated on the accompanying map. The locations on the map are identified through cross-text analysis, but mostly in reference to Reinhart Dozy’s translation of Arabic texts, under the premise that many Arabic scholars, including geographers, were familiar with the geography of al-Andalus and the Iberian Peninsula, so likely recount locations more accurately and in more detail (Dozy 1993).  

 
The initial wave is traditionally dated to 844 and is widely accepted as the first major incursion into the Iberian Peninsula. However, some scholars have suggested the possibility of Norse activity in the northern regions prior to this date, though such claims may be the result of confusion with contemporary Norse incursions into Normandy. The second wave, occurring between 859 and 861, is perhaps the most renowned. If Norman sources are to be believed, this expedition was led by the notable Viking figures Bjǫrn Járnsíða and Hásteinn (Simek 2014: 140–143). The third wave began c. 964 with an appearance in Portugal, prior to the more significant incursion of 986, when a fleet under the command of Gunnrauðr penetrated the Galician coast with the intent to plunder the renowned pilgrimage centre of Santiago de Compostela. No further substantial activity is attested until approximately 1015–1016, with a campaign reportedly led by Óláfr Haraldsson. From 1032 onward, evidence suggests a more sustained, though far less visible Norse presence in the northern territories of the peninsula, likely associated with mercenary service and therefore difficult, if not impossible, to accurately trace. Around 1109, Sigurðr Jórsalafari began his pilgrimage to Jerusalem, during which he is reported to have travelled through the Iberian Peninsula, engaging in both trade and raiding. 
 
While raiding and violent interactions continued into the twelfth century, the nature of these later episodes, led by Scandinavian pilgrim-nobility, places them outside the immediate scope of this showcase. Nonetheless, they reflect an almost constant presence in the Iberian Peninsula for a sustained period of time, challenging the appropriateness of the term ‘wave’ to describe the recurring nature of Norse activity in the region (García Losquiño 2022: 357-370). 
 
[note: Several events mentioned in the sources cannot be accurately mapped. This is primarily because they refer to Viking presence along the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula without indicating any movement inland. It is likely that sporadic raiding occurred between the documented ‘waves’, but the evidence is too fragmented and inconclusive to trace these activities with any precision. Additionally, movements that were stagnant or ambiguously recorded, such as Úlfr’s plundering of Galicia around 1028, are equally unmappable (Pálsson and Edwards 1986). Another example is Earl Rǫgnvaldr of Orkney, who is said to have overwintered in the northern Iberian Peninsula between 1151 and 1152 during his pilgrimage to Jerusalem. He reportedly carried out raids in pagan territories, though the precise locations remain unidentified. These are presumed to have been in al-Andalus, but, as with other cases, they cannot be mapped with any certainty. The maps featured in this showcase are not exhaustive, but they aim to offer an overview of Norse incursions across the Iberian Peninsula.]

[note: Outliers and unverified locations refer to those cited by only a single source or lacking confirmation.] 

Examination of Map I reveals distinct geographical concentrations, marked by dense or recurring markers. The distribution of these markers therefore demonstrates the expansive nature of Norse incursions throughout the Iberian Peninsula.  

Map II offers a reconstruction of both likely and variable routes along the Iberian Peninsula’s coastline, informed by the chronological sequencing of locations in written sources and previous efforts to map these routes. The variable routes detailed are equally plausible, but less certain.  

Three key geographical areas emerge when grouping and/or highlighting dense marker areas. Unsurprisingly, one of these is the north of the peninsula, particularly Galicia and Asturias. This is likely due to their proximity to southern France and areas of sustained Norse presence, such as the Loire River, which provided strategic access to the North Atlantic and rendered the northern coast more vulnerable and therefore, more accessible. Another significant area is Portugal. If the routes proposed in Map II are accurate, Norse entry into the Iberian Peninsula occurred via the North Atlantic, approaching predominantly from the west. With its many accessible ports and harbours, Portugal would have served as a logical landing point. Yet, it is plausible to ask whether this region functioned primarily as a passing place en route to more strategically important inland destinations, such as Sevilla, especially given the relative proximity of the mouth of the Guadalquivir River to the Portuguese coast. This leads us to the third key area, the southern peninsula, which includes Sevilla. The Norse attacked Sevilla from their temporary encampment on Isla Menor as they advanced toward Córdoba, the political and cultural heart of al-Andalus. Also included are Cádiz and the Strait of Gibraltar. Cádiz in particular may have functioned as a gateway to the Mediterranean, facilitating further coastal navigation and access to inland areas. Furthermore, repeated attempts to pass through the Estrecho de Gibraltar [Strait of Gibraltar], which is an area historically recognised for its challenging conditions, highlight the perseverance of the Norse as well as their superior sailing skills. Their ability to navigate almost the entirety of the Iberian coastline and exploit river networks is suggestive that these ‘waves’ of raids extended beyond this, indicating that trade likely played a significant role in their objectives within the Iberian Peninsula. 

Map IV demonstrates locations mentioned in source material where either the taking or release of captives occurs. These instances likely involved negotiations over ransom, paid in perishable goods and occasionally silver (Pires 2011). Given the Viking-Age economic engagement and reliance on the slave trade, these actions are perhaps unsurprising (Brink 2021: 288). For the most part, these exchanges occur in two of the three key geographical areas identified: Portugal and the south of the peninsula. This is suggestive that the Norse were aware of the urban centres that held greater strategic or economic value and that the coastal access and proximity to major trade routes would have made them prime locations for both capturing and negotiating the return of captives. The concentration of activity in these regions reflects a broader pattern of Norse interest in economically integrated and accessible coastal zones, rather than random or opportunistic incursions. An outlier appears along the Douro River, though no specific location is mentioned, raising the possibility that the captives were originally taken from Portuguese territory and transported down the Douro. The other outlier is Morocco, which prompts questions about the role and perceived value of black captives in this context, both in terms of their potential ransom within al-Andalus and their position within the broader Norse slave trade, especially in eastern markets. 

Norse activity in the Iberian Peninsula was frequent, strategic, and multifaceted, extended beyond episodic ‘waves’ of raiding. The evidence presented in this showcase highlights the sustained contact with key geographical locations in the Iberian Peninsula as a result of trade, ransom, and pilgrimage, challenging traditional narratives of isolated incursions. This showcase ultimately invites a reassessment of the significance of Iberia within the broader Viking diaspora and their naval networks.

Bibliography 

 
Brink, S. (2021) Thraldom: A History of Slavery in the Viking Age. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 
 
Christys, A. (2015) Vikings in the South: Voyages to Iberia and the Mediterranean. London: Bloomsbury. 
 
Dozy, R. P. A. (1993) Los Vikingos en España (Espejo navegante). Madrid: Ediciones Polifemo.  
 
García Losquiño, I. (2022) ‘Viking mercenary activity in Galicia’. Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies 14(3), 357-370. 
 
Pálsson, H. and Edwards, P. (ed. and trans.) (1978) Orkneyinga Saga: The History of the Earls of Orkney. (The Hogarth Press: London). 
 
Pires, H. (2011) ‘Money for Freedom: Ransom Paying to Vikings in Western Iberia’. Viking and Medieval Scandinavia 7, 125-130.